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Many are required for the construction of wind turbines. Most are mined in multiple locations around the world and are readily available.  

 

For Cement:

• Clay & Shale

• Gypsum

• Limestone

• Silica Sand

 

For Concrete:

• Aggregates & Crushed Stone

 

For Aluminum:

• Bauxite

 

For Steel: 

• Coal

• Iron Ore

• Molybdenum

• Zinc (Galvanization)

 

For Wiring: 

• Copper

 

For Magnets & Batteries:

• Cobalt

• Neodymium

• Boron

• Iron

• Rare Earth Oxides

 

Geologic Aspect
Environmental Impact
Natural Resources

Nysted Wind Facility, Denmark.  8-12 miles offshore in the North Sea

Geology & The Environment

Clean: 

 

Wind energy is one of the cleanest renewable sources.  No emissions are given off once installation is complete.  The only emissions are from mining of resources and the processing of materials that are used in the construction and installation of the foundations and turbines.  

 

 

Land Use: 

 

Dependent on the site chosen for the wind farm.  Wind farms built on flat land require more acreage than wind farms built on hillsides to allow for proper spacing between turbines.  All of the land however is not fully utilized by the turbines leaving ample space between for wildlife or livestock to graze, agriculture, or other purposes.  According to the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, wind turbines only use about 1 acre of land per megawatt of power produced by the wind farm, and only 3.5 acres per megawatt of power are temporarily disturbed during construction. 

 

Offshore wind farms require more space to accommodate the larger turbine blades and avoid overlapping wind turbulence fields. Siting and planning is of great importance to prevent competition with other industries such as oil, fishing, and recreation.  

 

Wildlife:

 

There have been many studies on the impact of wind farms on birds and bats.  Recent studies report bird deaths to range between three-five birds per megawatt of power per year, and bats between two - thirty per megawatt per year depending on the geographical location.  Researchers are working on technologies, such as ultrasonic transmitters, and advances to wind turbines that would deter birds and bats from flying through wind farms and decrease the number of deaths. 

 

Offshore wind turbines can have a positive effect on fish population with the establishment of artificial reef habitats.  

 

Noise: 

 

Wind turbines can generate noise which may disrupt nearby residents, bird nesting and breeding, and natural soundscape in areas that may be used for recreation. 

 

Visual:

 

The height of wind turbines can cause visual impairment to surrounding landscapes or seascapes. This concern is given great consideration when planning the site for new wind farms. 

Offshore:

 

Geological surface mapping must be completed and considered when choosing a site for new offshore wind farms.  Features that are evaluated are depth, soil type, and seafloor topography.  Rocky subsurface require additional drilling, increasing installation time and cost.  Engineers are working on technology that will enable wind turbine installation at greater depths.  

 

Offshore wind farms have an underground cable system that connect the turbines to the shore for transmission to the power grid.  Horizontal directional drilling is used to create channels for the cables to connect from the shore to troughs carved into the seafloor where the cables are laid and then buried with sediment.  

 

Coastal regions are generally more populated and therefore create demand for the wind energy that would be generated by developing wind farms off the coast of Texas. 

 

Onshore:

 

Factors that go into onshore siting are topography (flat land vs. hilly land), underlying subsurface must be stable, adequate wind speeds, means of transmission, and market.  Sites for onshore wind farms are in less densely populated areas making demand and transmission important considerations. 

 

 

There is potential for offshore wind power in all coastal regions of the U.S.  The Pacific Coast has the highest wind speeds, and therefore the highest potential energy, however the shallower waters off the Atlantic Coast and in the Gulf of Mexico make them  areas of high interest to developers.  According to a study by the national Renewable Energy Laboratory in 2012, the U.S. had an offshore wind potential of 16,975 TWh. 

According to the Texas General Land Office, Texas was the first state in the nation to hold leases for offshore wind energy development.  There are seven offshore wind energy leases currently in different stages of development off the coast of Texas.  

 

Wind Speeds: 

Offshore winds are stronger, more consistent, and more uniform than on land.  Increased wind speeds of only a few miles per hour can drastically change the output of electricity generated by each turbine. 

 

Wind speeds vary geographically as well as throughout different seasons and time of day.  Texas is among the five states with the largest amount of wind electricity generated in 2013. 

 

The National Renewable Energy Laboratory estimates that off the coast of the United States, the annual gross wind power potential is 4,223 GW. That is around four times the capacity of the current U.S. electric grid.  

The Grasberg mine, Papua Indonesia the world's largest gold and copper reserve. 

Offshore Wind Potential

Sources:

 

 

Image Sources:

 

 

This map shows the pattern of average annual wind speeds in the U.S. at 80 meters above ground, illustrating the sites for the greatest potential for onshore and offshore wind power generation. 

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